Safety, Toxicity
Many polluting substances are found in water:
Inorganic: Poisonous metals and minerals eg arsenic, lead, mercury, radioactive products, herbicides, fertilizers,
Organic: Chlorine compounds, petroleum byproducts, dioxins, hormones, antibiotics
Biofouling: Bacteria, viruses, parasites
Microbiology in General
Electrolytically generated copper/silver ions are potently microbiocidal although somewhat slower acting than chlorine they are much less subject to degradation, having residual antimicrobial potency lasting for months. The recommended minimum level of free chlorine for disinfection of public swimming pools is 1 mg/liter (1 ppm). This level is difficult to maintain due to the chlorine-demanding organic material introduced by bathers themselves as well as the environment. Consequently the residual level of chlorine will have often dropped to 0.1 to 0.3 mg/liter after 24 hours.
Eye and skin irritation may also occur at the minimum chlorine level needed for effective disinfection. Under Staphylococcus challenge, the combination of copper/silver together with free chlorine had a faster log 10 reduction of microbial numbers than did treatment with a high level of chlorine alone. This combination allows for a much reduced or zero level of chlorine.
Medical, Microbiology, Diseases and Infections
Anti-Microbial effects of trace quantities of metals such as Silver and Copper in trace amounts of less than 1 ppm have proven activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus anthracis, B. cereus, and B. subtilis, Vibrio cholerae, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Citrobacter freundii, coagulase-negative staphylococci, and Enterococcus faecium, Candida albicans and C. maltosa, Legionella pneumophila, hepatitis A virus (HAV), human rotavirus (HRV), human adenovirus, and poliovirus (PV)aflatoxin production by Aspergillus parasiticus.
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1:
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Silver-Containing Polymers.
Schierholz JM, Beuth J, Pulverer GKönig DP.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999 Nov; 43(11): 2819-2821. |
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2:
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Silver-coated nylon fiber as an antibacterial agent.
MacKeen PC, Person S, Warner SC, Snipes W, Stevens SE Jr.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1987 Jan; 31(1): 93-99. |
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3:
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In Vitro Testing of Antimicrobial Activity of Bone Cement.
Alt V, Bechert T, Steinrücke P, Wagener M, Seidel P, Dingeldein E, Domann E, Schnettler R.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004 Nov; 48(11): 4084-4088.
PMCID: 525460 |
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4:
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Silver-resistant mutants of Escherichia coli display active efflux of Ag+ and are deficient in porins.
Li XZ, Nikaido H, Williams KE.
J Bacteriol. 1997 Oct; 179(19): 6127-6132.
PMCID: 179518 |
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5:
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Electrochemical Ag+ for preservative use.
Simonetti N, Simonetti G, Bougnol F, Scalzo M.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1992 Dec; 58(12): 3834-3836.
PMCID: 183190 |
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6:
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Mechanism of resistance to silver ions in Klebsiella pneumoniae.
Kaur P, Vadehra DV.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1986 Jan; 29(1): 165-167.
PMCID: 180387 |
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7:
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Use of Aqueous Silver To Enhance Inactivation of Coliphage MS-2 by UV Disinfection.
Butkus MA, Labare MP, Starke JA, Moon K, Talbot M.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2004 May; 70(5): 2848-2853.
PMCID: 404450 |
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8:
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Mode of Bactericidal Action of Silver Zeolite and Its Comparison with That of Silver Nitrate.
Matsumura Y, Yoshikata K, Kunisaki SI, Tsuchido T.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003 Jul; 69(7): 4278-4281.
PMCID: 165194 |
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9:
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Negative Effect of High pH on Biocidal Efficacy of Copper and Silver Ions in Controlling Legionella pneumophila.
Lin YS, Vidic RD, Stout JE, Yu VL.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 Jun; 68(6): 2711-2715.
PMCID: 123931 |
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10:
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Effects of Halides on Plasmid-Mediated Silver Resistance in Escherichia coli.
Gupta A, Maynes M, Silver S.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1998 Dec; 64(12): 5042-5045.
PMCID: 90966 |
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11:
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Role of a Candida albicans P1-Type ATPase in Resistance to Copper and Silver Ion Toxicity.
Riggle PJ, Kumamoto CA.
J Bacteriol. 2000 Sep; 182(17): 4899-4905.
PMCID: 111370 |
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Broad-Spectrum Bactericidal Activity of Ag2O-Doped Bioactive Glass.
Bellantone M, Williams HD, Hench LL.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002 Jun; 46(6): 1940-1945.
PMCID: 127232 |
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13:
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Microbicidal Activity of a New Silver-Containing Polymer, SPI-ARGENT II.
Kampf G, Dietze B, Große-Siestrup C, Wendt C, Martiny H.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998 Sep; 42(9): 2440-2442.
PMCID: 105850 |
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Inactivation of Vegetative Cells, but Not Spores, of Bacillus anthracis, B. cereus, and B. subtilis on Stainless Steel Surfaces Coated with an Antimicrobial Silver- and Zinc-Containing Zeolite Formulation.
Galeano B, Korff E, Nicholson WL.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003 Jul; 69(7): 4329-4331.
PMCID: 165132 |
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15:
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Silver-based crystalline nanoparticles, microbially fabricated.
Klaus T, Joerger R, Olsson E, Granqvist CG.
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Nov 23; 96(24): 13611-13614.
PMCID: 24112 |
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16:
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Chemiosmotic Mechanism of Antimicrobial Activity of Ag+ in Vibrio cholerae.
Dibrov P, Dzioba J, Gosink KK, Häse CC.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2002 Aug; 46(8): 2668-2670.
PMCID: 127333 |
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Activities of a Nitrofurazone-Containing Urinary Catheter and a Silver Hydrogel Catheter against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Characteristic of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection.
Johnson JR, Delavari P, Azar M.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999 Dec; 43(12): 2990-2995.
PMCID: 89599 |
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Toxic Effects of Ag(I) and Hg(II) on Candida albicans and C. maltosa: a Flow Cytometric Evaluation.
Zhang S, Crow SA Jr.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001 Sep; 67(9): 4030-4035.
PMCID: 93125 |
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19:
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Inactivation of Treponema pallidum by Silver Sulfadiazine.
Chang TW, Weinstein L.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1975 May; 7(5): 538-539.
PMCID: 429178 |
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20:
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Efficacy of copper and silver ions and reduced levels of free chlorine in inactivation of Legionella pneumophila.
Landeen LK, Yahya MT, Gerba CP.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1989 Dec; 55(12): 3045-3050.
PMCID: 203221 |
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21:
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Disinfection of human enteric viruses in water by copper and silver in combination with low levels of chlorine.
Abad FX, Pintó RM, Diez JM, Bosch A.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1994 Jul; 60(7): 2377-2383.
PMCID: 201659 |
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Comparison of four methods for rapid detection of Pneumocystis carinii in respiratory specimens.
Cregan P, Yamamoto A, Lum A, VanDerHeide T, MacDonald M, Pulliam L.
J Clin Microbiol. 1990 Nov; 28(11): 2432-2436.
PMCID: 268201 |
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23:
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Silver-nylon: a new antimicrobial agent.
Deitch EA, Marino AA, Gillespie TE, Albright JA.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1983 Mar; 23(3): 356-359.
PMCID: 184651 |
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24:
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Plasmid-determined silver resistance in Pseudomonas stutzeri isolated from a silver mine.
Haefeli C, Franklin C, Hardy K.
J Bacteriol. 1984 Apr; 158(1): 389-392.
PMCID: 215434 |
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25:
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Bacterial sorption of heavy metals.
Mullen MD, Wolf DC, Ferris FG, Beveridge TJ, Flemming CA, Bailey GW.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1989 Dec; 55(12): 3143-3149.
PMCID: 203237 |
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26:
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Comparative Poliovirus Permeability of Silver, Polycarbonate, and Cellulose Membrane Filters.
Hahn RG, Hatlen JB, Kenny GE.
Appl Microbiol. 1970 Feb; 19(2): 317-320.
PMCID: 376675 |
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27:
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The infrared spectrum and structure of the type I complex of silver and DNA.
DiRico DE Jr, Keller PB, Hartman KA.
Nucleic Acids Res. 1985 Jan 11; 13(1): 251-260.
PMCID: 340988 |
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28:
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Effects of activated carbon and bacteriostatic filters on microbiological quality of drinking water.
Tobin RS, Smith DK, Lindsay JA.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1981 Mar; 41(3): 646-651.
PMCID: 243753 |
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29:
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Susceptibility of Bacteroides spp. to heavy metals.
Riley TV, Mee BJ.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1982 Nov; 22(5): 889-892.
PMCID: 185676 |
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Rapid presumptive bacteriological diagnosis of Legionnaires disease.
Faine S, Edelstein P, Kirby BD, Finegold SM.
J Clin Microbiol. 1979 Jul; 10(1): 104-105.
PMCID: 273102 |
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31:
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Reversal of the silver inhibition of microorganisms by agar.
Tilton RC, Rosenberg B.
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978 Jun; 35(6): 1116-1120.
PMCID: 242993 |
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Electrically Generated Silver Ions: Quantitative Effects on Bacterial and Mammalian Cells.
Berger TJ, Spadaro JA, Chapin SE, Becker RO.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1976 Feb; 9(2): 357-358.
PMCID: 429529 |
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Properties of Silver Sulfadiazine-Resistant Enterobacter cloacae.
Rosenkranz HS, Coward JE, Wlodkowski TJ, Carr HS.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1974 Feb; 5(2): 199-201.
PMCID: 428945 |
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Prevention of Herpes Keratoconjunctivitis in Rabbits By Silver Sulfadiazine.
Chang TW, Weinstein L.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1975 Dec; 8(6): 677-678.
PMCID: 429446 |
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Effects of Trace Metals on the Production of Aflatoxins by Aspergillus parasiticus.
Marsh PB, Simpson ME, Trucksess MW.
Appl Microbiol. 1975 Jul; 30(1): 52-57.
PMCID: 187113 |
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36:
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Silver Sulfadiazine: Effect on the Ultrastructure of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Coward JE, Carr HS, Rosenkranz HS.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1973 May; 3(5): 621-624.
PMCID: 444467 |
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37:
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Silver Sulfadiazine: In Vitro Antibacterial Activity.
Carr HS, Wlodkowski TJ, Rosenkranz HS.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1973 Nov; 4(5): 585-587.
PMCID: 444599 |
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38:
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Comparison of Methods for the Recovery of Virus Inoculated into Ground Beef.
Tierney JT, Sullivan R, Larkin EP, Peeler JT.
Appl Microbiol. 1973 Oct; 26(4): 497-501.
PMCID: 379834 |
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39:
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Silver Sulfadiazine: Effect on the Growth and Metabolism of Bacteria.
Rosenkranz HS, Carr HS.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1972 Nov; 2(5): 367-372.
PMCID: 444322 |